Azu’s Notes

Givenness, topic and contrast are not inherent properties of particular noun phrases, but relational categories of information structure.
e.g.
whether a noun phrase is contrastive or not can be identified only in light of the utterance or even the discourse in which it occurs

Definiteness, referentiality and the generic/specific contrast are inherent properties of the noun phrase.
e.g.
whether a noun phrase is definite or indefinite can be decided even without knowing the sentence in which it occurs

Syntactic operations and other phenomena found in different languages can be described using these categories of information structure.

The same content may be expressed in a variety of ways – where the difference is often a pragmatic one.

The extent to which and the ways in which pragmatic information is encoded in morphology and syntax varies among languages.

e.g.
a. Some languages have words whose only purpose is to indicate pragmatic categories (e.g. Japanese)
b. Some languages depend on syntactic structures (e.g. passives in English)
c. Many languages use intonation to mark pragmatic nuances

Fronting - a syntactic movement found in many languages, have different functions in different languages

In English fronting is used to mark givenness and the fronted noun phrases are usually contrastive

e.g.
i. a fronted noun phrase represents given information:

Dhaleyka: She said you don’t like chocolates.
Kaidha: Chocolates I can definitely live without.

ii. a noun phrase can be fronted if its referent is part of a set that has been mentioned earlier in the discourse (even if the referent itself may not have been):

Dhaleyka: What is your least favourite dessert?
Kaidha: Chocolates, I loathe!

ii. in English fronted noun phrases are usually contrastive

Dhaleyka: Do you like ice cream?
Kaidha: I love ice cream, but chocolates I loathe.

In English, the fronted noun phrase must be the more salient element of the sentence; otherwise the sentence would be pragmatically inappropriate.

e.g.
Dhaleyka: What’s your favourite dessert?
Kaidha: Puddings I love, especially with ice cream and wafers.

In some languages (e.g. Mandarin Chinese) fronted noun phrases represent the topic and do not necessarily have a semantic role in the rest of the sentence; neither do they have to be contrastive.

Left-dislocation though it is an operation that is syntactically similar to fronting, has many differences - the main one being the pronoun used in left-dislocated sentences.

e.g.
Chocolates, I can’t live without them. - left-dislocated
Chocolates I can’t live without. - fronted

Left-dislocated noun phrases are set off from the rest of the sentence by a short pause (illustrated by a comma in writing)

A main function of left-dislocation is to reintroduce (usually contrastively) a noun phrase that has not been mentioned for a while in a particular discourse.
e.g.
I love reading. I’d read anything once. I’ve read all of John Grisham’s. Some of Sydney Sheldon’s books are pretty good too. Danielle Steel also I have read, some of hers are wonderful too. Then there is J K Rowling of course! Shakespeare, Dickens and Austen are also wonderful authors. But Grisham, he is my favourite.

In the above example, the speaker lists a number of authors and comments on them. Grisham mentioned early in the discourse, is reintroduced in the last sentence. Because nothing has been said about him in the previous four sentences, the speaker reintroduces Grisham as a left-dislocated noun phrase.

Left-dislocation is also contrastive - in the above example, Grisham clearly contrasts with Sheldon, Steel, Rowling, Shakespeare, Dickens and Austen.

As a result of its double function, left-dislocation is typically used when speakers go through lists and make comments on each individual element in the list.

Definite - a noun phrase that is marked to indicate that the speaker believes the addressee can identify its referent

Indefinite - when the noun phrase is not marked with the assumption that the addressee can identify the referent

e.g.
Kanbulo: Who brought in the cat?
Futhu: The boy.

Pronouns and proper nouns are generally definite - but there are exceptions

e.g.
There is a Hassan Thakuru on my register who hasn’t yet showed up for a single class this semester.

In English and many other languages, definiteness is marked by the choice of articles (the Vs a) or by demonstratives (this & that)

Some languages have only one article (e.g. Fijian)

e.g

na totoka mua
Article handsome sailor
‘The handsome sailor’

e dua na totoka mua
he/she/it one Article handsome sailor
‘A handsome sailor’

Many languages do not have articles at all, and hence mark definiteness in other ways (e.g. Chinese)

There are also some languages that have two word forms - one definite and one indefinite (e.g. Rotuman)

Definiteness is different from givenness as a noun phrase can be:
a. definite and given

e.g.
Once upon a time, in a town far away, there lived a beautiful princess. One day, the beautiful princess was cursed by a wicked witch.

b. indefinite and given

e.g.

On his birthday, he took us to a café a café so noisy that it was impossible to hear yourself think, let alone have a conversation.
c. definite and new

e.g
Any medication should be taken only after consulting the physician.

d. indefinite and new

e.g.
Yousuf is waiting for a lovely girl with curly hair.
Yousuf is waiting for a lovely girl with curly hair; her name is Zainab.

Out of the above, definite and given and indefinite and new are most common

Definiteness and givenness are two distinct categories of information structure

A referential noun phrase is one that refers to a particular entity.

Referentiality and definiteness need to be distinguished as a noun phrase can be:
a. referential and definite

e.g.
He’s the president of the committee.

b. referential and indefinite

e.g.
My son bought a rabbit.

c. nonreferential and definite

e.g.
Where’s the closest café around here?

d. nonreferential and indefinite
e.g.
We need to write an essay.

Although pronouns and proper nouns are usually referential, certain pronouns such as you, it, they and one are often nonreferential.

e.g.
If you borrow others’ ideas, you need to acknowledge them.
It is said that the Maldives is paradise for tourists from cold climates.
They have changed the deadline for the assignment again.
One shouldn’t panic in situations such as these.

A noun phrase may be generic or specific depending on whether it refers to a category or to a particular member of a category.

e.g.
The cat is a feline.
The cat is sleeping.

Generic/specific contrast is a separate category that differs from definiteness and referentiality.

Topic - the main centre of attention in a sentence

Comment - the element of sentence that says something about the topic

Often (but not always) given information is the topic and the new information represents the comment

e.g. Speaking of Hiyala, she won the contest.
As for Hiyala, she won the contest.

In certain cases, the new information can be the topic as well

e.g. Hiyala won the contest.
As for her boyfriend, he came last.

Similarly, given information can also be a comment

e.g. Alifulhu didn’t do anything the fanditha man asked.

As for Hiyala, she did everything he asked.

Therefore, the given/new information contrast is different from the topic/comment contrast

It is difficult to define the topic, as it is not necessary for the topic to be a property of the sentence -  it may be a property of the discourse context

e.g. Watch out!
(uttered to draw a pedestrian’s attention to speeding motorbike)

In English, marking the subject of a sentence is much more important than marking the topic of the sentence - in fact, the only construction that unequivocally marks topics in English is the relatively rare ‘as for ‘ construction

e.g. As for me, I’ve had enough of this.

Marking topic is considerably more important in languages such as Japanese and Korean - which have words whose only function is to mark the topic noun phrase
Contrastive noun phrase - a noun phrase that is marked as being in opposition to another noun phrase in the same discourse

e.g. Thakuru: Did Hiyala prepare the curry?
Alifulhu: No, Goma did.

Contrast is also marked when narrowing down a choice from several candidates to one - where the noun phrase that refers to the chosen candidate is marked contrastively

e.g. Of all the students in the class, only Hiyala knew the meaning of the word.

Simple test for contrast - check if the noun phrase can be followed by rather than

e.g. Thakuru: Did Hiyala prepare the curry?
Alifulhu: No, Goma, rather than Hiyala, prepared the curry.

A single sentence may have several contrastive noun phrases

e.g. Thakuru: Did Hiyala prepare the curry?
Alifulhu: Yes, Hiyala prepared the curry, but Goma prepared a whole meal on her own.

The entity with which a noun phrase is contrasted is sometimes understood from the discourse and/or nonlinguistic contexts
e.g. Hiyala wants to have a lot of children.
(If this was a part of a conversation about how the interlocutors do not want to have too many children

In English, the most common way in which contrastive noun phrase is marked is by pronouncing the contrastive noun phrase with strong stress

e.g. Alifulhu may be good-looking, but Thakuru is richer.

Pragmatics - (sometimes used interchangeably with the term information structure) studies language use, in particular the relationship among syntax, semantics and the interpretation in accordance with the context of situation.

Information Structure - level of structure at which certain elements in a sentences are highlighted or backgrounded according to their prominence in the particular discourse.

A primary task in pragmatics is identifying the categories needed to talk about information structure. A set of basic concepts describing pragmatic differences in English and other languages is essential.

Categories of Information Structure - must be applicable to all languages (though how they are used may differ among languages) as the purpose of these categories is to explain how discourse is constructed in any language.

They types of syntactic constructions and the categories of information structure possible in different languages, however, since the categories of information structure are not language dependent, cannot be defined in terms of particular structures.

Yet, in all languages a major function of syntax is to encode pragmatic information and what differs from one language to another is the way in which pragmatics maps onto syntax.

Given (old) Information - content already introduced into a discourse and hence presumed to be at the forefront of the hearer’s mind.

New Information - content introduced into a discourse for the first time.

Given information is often expressed in condensed form by the second speaker.

Pieces of information that have close association with something that has been introduced in the discourse previously are taken as given.

As most kinds of discourse have implicit speakers and addressees, interactors always take first and second speaker pronouns to be given information.

Noun phrases with new information are usually more stressed and commonly expressed in more elaborate fashions.

Given information, however, are often abbreviated or reduced.

Fricatives

Fricatives are articulated with a less extreme degree of constriction than stops and plosives: close approximation.

Fricatives are produced by bringing together two articulators to the point where the airflow is not quite fully blocked – leaving enough of a gap for air to escape, but as the articulators are so close together that audible friction is created as the air passes through.
There are nine fricative consonants in English:

i. voiceless labio-dental fricative  [f]
created by bringing the lower lip close to the upper teeth in a constriction of close approximation, without vibration of the vocal cords
e.g. [f] in fin
ii. voiced labio-dental fricative  [v]
created by bringing the lower lip close to the upper teeth in a constriction of close approximation, with vibration of the vocal cords
e.g. [v] in van

iii. voiceless dental fricative
created by bringing the tip of the tongue into a constriction of close approximation with the upper teeth, without vibration of the vocal cords
e.g. in thin

iv. voiced dental fricative
created by bringing the tip of the tongue into a constriction of close approximation with the upper teeth, with vibration of the vocal cords
e.g. in this

v. voiceless alveolar fricative  [s]
created by bringing the tip or blade of the tongue into a constriction of close approximation with the alveolar ridge, without vibration of the vocal cords
e.g. [s] in sin

vi. voiceless alveolar fricative  [z]
created by bringing the tip or blade of the tongue into a constriction of close approximation with the alveolar ridge, with vibration of the vocal cords
e.g. [z] in zip

vii. voiceless palato-alveolar fricative 
created by bringing the blade of the tongue into a constriction of close approximation with the palato-alveolar region, without vibration of the vocal cords
e.g. in shp

viii. voiced palato-alveolar fricative 
created by bringing the blade of the tongue into a constriction of close approximation with the palato-alveolar region, with vibration of the vocal cords
e.g. in vision

ix. voiceless glottal fricative   [h]
created by bringing the vocal cords into a constriction of close approximation, so that friction is produced without vibration.
e.g. [h] in hit

Approximants

The least radical degree of constriction occur when the articulators come fairly close together, but not sufficiently close together to create friction

This kind of stricture is called open approximation and consonants produced in this way are called approximants

The first sound in yes - transcribed as [j] (e.g. /jes/) is an approximant

[j] is produced by bringing the front of the tongue close to the hard palate.

Although the sides of the tongue are in constriction of complete closure with the upper gums, the air escapes along a central groove in which the front of the tongue is not close enough to the hard palate to create friction

Approximants are normally voiced, and [j] is described as a voiced palatal approximant

The first sound in many English speakers’ pronunciation of rip, rope, rat …
- transcribed as is an approximant

It is produced by bringing the blade of the tongue into a constriction of open approximation with the alveolar ridge

This approximant - is referred to as an alveolar approximant

As with [j], the sides of the tongue form a constriction of complete closure with the gums at the sides of the mouth, but the air escapes along a central groove without creating friction

For most speakers (and in varying degrees, depending on the accent), the tongue body is somewhat retracted when is uttered; and is therefore often described as a post-alveolar approximant, but ‘alveolar approximant’ will suffice for our purposes

The first sound in wet - transcribed as [w] (e.g. /wet/) is also an approximant

In producing this sound, the lips form a constriction of open approximation; there is no friction produced

But, the articulation of [w] is more complicated than that of [j], since [w] also involves another articulation, between the back of the tongue and the velum (i.e. a velar articulation)

Therefore [w] is referred to as a labio-velar approximant

Central Vs Lateral

In discussing the alveolar approximant alveolar approximant , we said that the air escapes along a central groove (of the tongue in this case, the same kind of groove can be formed by the lips)

This is true of all the fricatives and approximants discussed so far

However, it is possible to produce fricatives and approximants in which this is not the case

e.g. the first sound in lift

in producing this sound, the centre or the blade of the tongue forms a stricture of complete closure with part of the alveolar ridge, but the articulation which ‘counts’ is that between the sides of the tongue and the alveolar ridge

Since the sides of the tongue form a constriction of open articulation with the alveolar ridge, and vocal cords vibrate but no friction is created this sound transcribed as , is referred to as a voiced alveolar lateral approximant

Since English fricatives and approximants are typically central, the term ‘laterals’ are used to refer to lateral approximants and the term ‘central’ is omitted in describing central fricatives and approximants

The sounds and are quite similar: both are approximants, both are voiced, both are alveolar

The principal difference is that is lateral and is central

Taps and Trills

We have noted that, for a great many speakers of English, the sound at the beginning of words such as rat, rope, reap - is a post-alveolar approximant -

The same is true of the sound which occurs after stops in words such as prude, true, creep …

However, some speakers utter, not an approximant, but a sound which is very similar to a stop of very short duration
During the articulation of this sound, the blade of the tongue comes into a momentary constriction of complete closure with the alveolar ridge

This sound transcribed as , is referred to as a voiced alveolar tap (or flap)

This also the sound that many American speakers have instead of [t] and [d] in words such as Betty, witty, rider, heady …

Speakers of certain accents of English may utter neither nor in words like rat, rope, reap, prude, true, creep … but a sound referred to as a voiced alveolar trill

Trills are produced by holding one articulator (e.g. blade of the tongue) next to the other (e.g. alveolar ridge) in a constriction of complete closure, but without the same muscular pressure as in a stop

The result is that air pressure builds up behind the closure and forces it open; the air pressure then reduces, and the muscular pressure again creates a constriction of complete closure

This sequence may be repeated in quick succession, producing, in this case an alveolar trill - [r]; but this is relatively rare in most English accents

Secondary Articulation

We have said that the lateral approximant is alveolar
However, laterals may also be produced with an additional articulation, such as one formed between the back of the tongue and the velar (i.e. velar articulation)

When this happens, the alveolar articulation is distinguished as the primary articulation and the velar articulation as the secondary articulation

Where a secondary articulation is velar, this process is referred to as velarization: it is said that the lateral is velarized

The velarized lateral approximant is transcribed using the velarization diacritic -

This sound is often referred to as ‘dark l’

Where a secondary articulation is palatal, this process is referred to as palatalization: it is said that the lateral is palatalized

The palatalized lateral approximant is transcribed using the palatalization diacritic -

The term ‘clear l’ is often used to refer to or

Affricates
Affricates are produced with a constriction of complete closure followed by a release phase in which friction occurs.
There are two affricates in English and

- voiceless palato-alveolar affricate
- voiced palato-alveolar affricate